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Some unusual witnesses helped convict Alex Murdaugh of the murders of his wife, Maggie, and son, Paul. The first was Bubba, Maggies yellow Labrador retriever. Prosecutors used a recording of Bubba to place Alex at the site of the murders. Given Alexs presence at the crime scene, other witnesses then revealed his movements, tracked his speed and explained what he had in his hands. Those other witnesses were a 2021 Chevy Suburban and Maggie, Paul and Alexs cellphones, which all provided data. Theyre all part of the Internet of Things, also known as IoT. The privacy implications of devices connected to the internet are not often the most important consideration in solving a murder case. But outside of criminal prosecution, they affect peoples privacy in ways that should give everyone pause. The Internet of Things The Internet of Things includes any object or device that automatically sends and receives data via the internet. When you use your phone to message someone or social media to post something, the sharing is deliberate. But the automatic nature of connected devices effectively cuts humans out of the loop. The data from these devices can reveal a lot about the people who interact with themand about other people around the devices. As an assistant professor of law at the University of South Carolina, I have watched as new kinds of connected devices have entered the market. New devices mean new ways to collect data about people. Connected devices collect information from different contexts. Take your refrigerator. As a non-IoT device, your fridge generated no data about your kitchen, your food, or how often you peeked inside. Your relationship with the fridge was effectively private. Only you knew about that midnight snack or whether you ogled a coworkers lunch. Now, smart refrigerators can respond to voice commands, show images of the items in your fridge, track who opens it, suggest recipes, generate grocery lists and even contact your car to let you know the milk has expired. All these functions require continuous streams of data. Device data and your privacy Connected devices generate lots of data in contexts that have typically produced little data to make those situations legible to whoever can access the data. In the past, if you wanted to monitor your heart rate, blood oxygenation, sleep patterns, and stress levels, you might have undergone a battery of tests at a hospital. Specialized equipment in a controlled setting would have measured your body and make these parts of you visible to highly trained, licensed professionals. But now, devices such as the Oura Ring track and analyze all that information continuously, in non-health care contexts. Even if you dont mind sharing data with an Internet of Things company, there are privacy risks to using a device like this. In the health care context, a series of rules enforced by several groups make sure that connected equipment and the data the equipment generates have adequate cybersecurity protections. Away from that context, connected devices that perform similar functions dont have to meet the same cybersecurity standards. The U.S. Cyber Trust Mark program, administered by the Federal Communications Commission, is developing cybersecurity standards for Internet of Things devices. But the program is voluntary. In some states, such as Washington, state laws set standards for protecting health data from connected devices. But these laws dont cover all data from all devices in all contexts. This leaves the devices, and the data they generate, particularly vulnerable to unwanted access by hackers. Your inability to control who sees the data that connected devices gather is another privacy risk. It can give advertisers insights about potential customers. Absent a mandated opt-out, each device provider can decide what it does with customer data. Amazon, for example, recently removed the Do Not Send Voice Recordings option from the privacy settings of its popular smart speaker, Alexa. Some connected-device providers participate in data markets, selling your data to the highest bidder. Sometimes those purchasers include government agencies. So, instead of needing a warrant to track your whereabouts or learn about activity in your home, they can purchase or access Internet of Things records. A connected device can also compromise the data privacy of someone who just happens to be nearby. Connected cars Cars have joined the ranks of the Internet of Things. The 2021 Chevy Suburban that helped convict Alex Murdaugh simply tracked information about the vehicle. This included the vehicles speed, the turning radius of the steering wheel, and time stamps. Most modern vehicles also incorporate data from external sources. GPS data and infotainment systems that connect to cellphones also track the vehicles movements. All of this data can also be used to track the whereabouts and behavior of drivers and other people in the vehicles. And as vehicles become increasingly automated, they need to make driving decisions in increasingly complex situations. To make safe driving decisions, they need data about the world around them. They need to know the size, speed, and behavior of all the nearby vehicles on the roadway, moment to moment. They ned to instantly identify the best way to avoid a pedestrian, cyclist or other object entering the roadway. If you and I are driving in separate cars on the same roadway, it means my car is collecting information about you. And if my vehicle is connected, then data about you is being shared with other cars and car companies. In other words, if a Tesla had been present at the scene of the Murdaugh murders, its outward facing cameras could have captured footage. Bubbas testimony might not have been necessary. Spillover data collection Internet of Things devices generate data from similar situations in a highly structured way. Therefore, what data collectors learn about me from my connected device may also give them insights about someone else in a similar situation. Take smart meters that share information with the water utility every 15 minutes. Imagine a subdivision with a narrow range of house and yard sizes. Water usage should be relatively comparable for each household. Data from even just a couple of houses can give a good sense of what water use should be for everyone in the neighborhood. Without actually collecting data from each house, data from connected devices reveals potentially private information about similarly situated people. Data from IoT devices can also fuel insights into people who never use or make contact with these devices. Aggregated data from Oura Rings, for instance, could contribute to decisions a health insurer makes about you. Connected devices are also changing. In addition to collecting data about the person using the device, a growing number of sensors collect information about the environment around that person. Some of my research has examined what privacy means for people observed by vehicle sensor systems such as radar, lidar, and sonar. These technologies capture potentially very revealing information about people and their property. Even the most comprehensive privacy laws in the United States offer people little recourse for the impact to their privacy. Civilian drones are capable of gathering data about other people. But people observed by drones would have a tough time learning that data about them exists and an even harder time controlling how that information might be used. Meanwhile, artificial intelligence systems are expanding the ways Internet of Things data can affect the privacy of other people by automating the process of training IoT systems. AI chipmaker Nvidia has created a digital environment, or model, where people can upload their connected device data. This environment can help train IoT devices to predict the outcomes of the devices interactions with other people, according to Nvidia. Models like this make it easy for AI devices that you dont own to collect data or reach conclusions about you. In other words, IoT data processed by AI can make inferences about you, rendering you legible to the AI system even before you interact with an IoT device. Looking forward Internet of Things devices and the data they generate are here to stay. As the world becomes increasingly automated, I believe its important to be more aware of the way connected devices may be affecting peoples privacy. The story of how vehicle data combined with cell data in the Murdaugh trial is a case in point. At the start of the trial, prosecutors came ready to show phone call logs and texts, steps recorded, apps asking for information, GPS locations, changes when the phone went from vertical portrait mode to horizontal landscape mode and back, andkey to the prosecutions casewhen the camera was activated. But that was probably not enough to merit a conviction. During the trial, GM called and said something like oh wait, we found something, according to the prosecution. That vehicle data, combined with the cellphone data, told a story that Alex Murdaugh could not deny. There are at least two lessons from this story. First, not even GM fully realized all the data it had collected in its vehicles. Its important to be aware of just how much information IoT devices are collecting. Second, combining data from different IoT devices revealed incontestable details of Alex Murdaughs activities. Away from criminal court, combining data from multiple IoT devices can have a profound effect on peoples privacy. If peoples data privacy matters, how do we address this reality? One way of potentially protecting peoples privacy is to make sure people and communities observed by connected devices have a direct say in what data the devices collect and how the data is used. This article is part of a series on data privacy that explores who collects your data, what and how they collect, who sells and buys your data, what they all do with it, and what you can do about it. David Sella-Villa is an assistant professor of law at the University of South Carolina. This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
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Wood is, by far, the most common material used in the U.S. for single-family-home construction. But wood construction isnt engineered for long-term durability, and it often underperforms, particularly in the face of increasingly common extreme weather events. In response to these challenges, I believe mass-produced concrete homes can offer affordable, resilient housing in the U.S. By leveraging the latest innovations of the precast concrete industry, this type of homebuilding can meet the needs of a changing world. Woods rise to power Over 90% of the new homes built in the U.S. rely on wood framing. Wood has deep historical roots as a building material in the U.S., dating back to the earliest European settlers who constructed shelters using the abundant native timber. One of the most recognizable typologies was the log cabin, built from large tree trunks notched at the corners for structural stability. In the 1830s, wood construction underwent a significant shift with the introduction of balloon framing. This system used standardized, sawed lumber and mass-produced nails, allowing much smaller wood components to replace the earlier heavy timber frames. It could be assembled by unskilled labor using simple tools, making it both accessible and economical. In the early 20th century, balloon framing evolved into platform framing, which became the dominant method. By using shorter lumber lengths, platform framing allowed each floor to be built as a separate working platform, simplifying construction and improving its efficiency. The proliferation and evolution of wood construction helped shape the architectural and cultural identity of the nation. For centuries, wood-framed houses have defined the American idea of homeso much so that even today, when Americans imagine a house, they typically envision one built of wood. Today, light-frame wood construction dominates the U.S. residential market. Wood is relatively affordable and readily available, offering a cost-effective solution for homebuilding. Contractors are familiar with wood construction techniques. In addition, building codes and regulations have long been tailored to wood-frame systems, further reinforcing their prevalence in the housing industry. Despite its advantages, wood light-frame construction presents several important limitations. Wood is vulnerable to fire. And in hurricane- and tornado-prone regions, wood-framed homes can be damaged or destroyed. Wood is also highly susceptible to water-related issues, such as swelling, warping, and structural deterioration caused by leaks or flooding. Vulnerability to termites, mold, rot, and mildew further compromise the longevity and safety of wood-framed structures, especially in humid or poorly ventilated environments. A modular, precast system of concrete rings can be connected in different ways to build a range of models of energy-efficient homes. [Image: Pablo Moyano Fernández, CC BY-SA] The case for concrete Meanwhile, concrete has revolutionized architecture and engineering over the past century. In my academic work, Ive studied, written, and taught about the materials many advantages. The material offers unmatched strength and durability, while also allowing design flexibility and versatility. Its low-cost and low-maintenance, and it has high thermal mass properties, which refers to the materials ability to absorb and store heat during the day, and slowly release it during the cooler nights. This can lower heating and cooling costs. Properly designed concrete enclosures offer exceptional performance against a wide range of hazards. Concrete can withstand fire, flooding, mold, insect infestation, earthquakes, hail, hurricanes, and tornadoes. Its commonly used for home construction in many parts of the world, such as Europe, Japan, Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina, as well as India and other parts of Southeast Asia. However, despite their multiple benefits, concrete single-family homes are rare in the U.S. Thats because most concrete structures are built using a process called cast-in-place. In this technique, the concrete is formed and poured directly at the construction site. The method relies on built-in-place molds. After the concrete is cast and cured over several days, the formwork is removed. This process is labor-intensive and time-consuming, and it often produces considerable waste. This is particularly an issue in the U.S., where labor is more expensive than in other parts of the world. The material and labor cost can be as high as 35% to 60% of the total construction cost. Portland cement, the binding agent in concrete, requires significant energy to produce, resulting in considerable carbon dioxide emissions. However, this environmental cost is often offset by concretes durability and long service life. Concretes design flexibility and structural integrity make it particularly effective for large-scale structures. So in the U.S., youll see it used for large commercial buildings, skyscrapers and most highways, bridges, dams, and other critical infrastructure projects. But when it comes to single-family homes, cast-in-place concrete poses challenges to contractors. There are the higher initial construction costs, along with a lack of subcontractor expertise. For these reasons, most builders and cntractors stick with what they know: the wood frame. A new model for home construction Precast concrete, however, offers a promising alternative. Unlike cast-in-place concrete, precast systems allow for off-site manufacturing under controlled conditions. This improves the quality of the structure, while also reducing waste and labor. The CRETE House, a prototype I worked on in 2017 alongside a team at Washington University in St. Louis, showed the advantages of a precast home construction. To build the precast concrete home, we used ultra-high-performance concrete, one of the latest advances in the concrete industry. Compared with conventional concrete, its about six times stronger, virtually impermeable, and more resistant to freeze-thaw cycles. Ultra-high-performance concrete can last several hundred years. The strength of the CRETE House was tested by shooting a piece of wood at 120 mph to simulate flying debris from an F5 tornado. It was unable to breach the wall, which was only 2 inches thick. Building on the success of the CRETE House, I designed the Compact House as a solution for affordable, resilient housing. The house consists of a modular, precast concrete system of rings that can be connected to form the entire structurefloors, walls, and roofscreating airtight, energy-efficient homes. A series of different rings can be chosen from a catalog to deliver different models that can range in size from 270 to 990 square feet. The precast rings can be transported on flatbed trailers and assembled into a unit in a single day, drastically reducing on-site labor, time, and cost. Since theyre built using durable concrete forms, the house can be easily mass-produced. When precast concrete homes are mass-produced, the cost can be competitive with traditional wood-framed homes. Furthermore, the homes are designed to last far beyond 100 years (much longer than typical wood structures) while significantly lowering utility bills, maintenance expenses, and insurance premiums. The project is also envisioned as an open-source design. This means that the molds, which are expensive, are available for any precast producer to use and modify. The Compact House is made using ultra-high-performance concrete. [Image: Pablo Moyano Fernández, CC BY-SA] Leveraging a network thats already in place Two key limitations of precast concrete construction are the size and weight of the components and the distance to the project site. Precast elements must comply with standard transportation regulations, which impose restrictions on both size and weight in order to pass under bridges and prevent road damage. As a result, components are typically limited to dimensions that can be safely and legally transported by truck. Each of the Compact Houses pieces are small enough to be transported in standard trailers. Additionally, transportation costs become a major factor beyond a certain range. In general, the practical delivery radius from a precast plant to a construction site is 500 miles. Anything beyond that becomes economically unfeasible. However, the infrastructure to build precast concrete homes is already largely in place. Since precast concrete is often used for office buildings, schools, parking complexes, and large apartments buildings, theres already an extensive national network of manufacturing plants capable of producing and delivering components within that 500-mile radius. There are other approaches to build homes with concrete: Homes can use concrete masonry units, which are similar to cinder blocks. This is a common technique around the world. Insulated concrete forms involve rigid foam blocks that are stacked like Lego bricks and are then filled with poured concrete, creating a structure with built-in insulation. And theres even 3D-printed concrete, a rapidly evolving technology that is in its early stages of development. However, none of these use precast concrete modules (the rings in my prototypes), and therefore require substantially longer on-site time and labor. To me, precast concrete homes offer a compelling vision for the future of affordable housing. They signal a generational shift away from short-term construction and toward long-term valueredefining what it means to build for resilience, efficiency, and equity in housing. This article is part of a series centered on envisioning ways to deal with the housing crisis. Pablo Moyano Fernández is an assistant professor of architecture at Washington University in St. Louis. This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
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Workplaces in the United States are remarkably conflict averse. Many people dont even like to give criticisms to someone else directly, let alone to hash out a disagreement over a path forward or address a conflict of values. As a result, we kick many conflicts down the road in ways that create problems. We lead people to believe we agree with them when we dont and we fail to address small concerns early on, when they can be fixed. This failure to act can turn a molehill into a mountain. That said, it is not always good to engage conflict directly or immediately. Here’s what you can do to make those conversations productive. Let the heat die down When you first become aware of a conflict, there is often an emotional reaction that goes along with any contradiction or disagreement that you may recognize cognitively. This duality to a conflict reflects the distinction made in psychology between hot (that is emotional) states and cool (that is cognitive) states. A strong emotional reaction comes along with energy. That energy drives you to want to act. Unfortunately, when the energy level is quite high, you may act without reflecting deeply on what youre doing. In order to make your disagreements as productive as possible, it is best to wait for any initial energy associated with the disagreement to subside. That way, you can focus your discussions on having a good give and take. In addition, it can be valuable to take the time to think through both what you want to say to someone else as well as what youre hoping to accomplish from the interaction. What is there to be gained? Addressing conflict is inherently difficult. It is hard to do, and it can put strain on a relationship in the short-term. So, there has to be some benefit to going through the process. When youre exploring whether to engage directly with someone about a disagreement, you want to highlight what you hope to gain from the conversation. Start by highlighting your ideal end state. Are you trying to make someone else aware of a problem they might not know about? Are you trying to influence someones behavior? Are you trying to change a decision that was made in the past? Once you have a sense of what youd like to accomplish, you can then plan a structure for the conversation to help you reach that goal. Part of that plan involves finding a way to tell the individual youll be talking with what you want. That is, the ideal conversation around a conflict is not one that just highlights that there is a problem, but also charts a path forward. It is important to bring a constructive mindset to difficult conversations. You may not know what the solution to a problem is, but you should plan to explore potential solutions. You can ask others for help generating ideas. If you are raising a problem with someone for the first time, it is also possible this discussion may catch them by surprise (or even lead to an emotional response). So, be prepared to schedule another time to talk later when the other party is ready to explore solutions. Be open When you initiate a conversation around a difficult topic, you know your side of the story. You also have your sense of what youre hoping to accomplish. You are probably missing key information as well. Thats one reason why you want to have a conversation. In order to make it a true discussion, though, you have to be willing to learn and potentially change your mind as a result of what you hear. That openness can be difficult. Conflicts can lead to a sense that you have to win the discussion by bringing the other person over to your way of thinking about things. The goal of a difficult conversation isnt to win. It is to reach an accommodation to address the source of the conflict. That solution is likely to involve compromise on your part. You should prepare yourself mentally that youre not going to get everything you want before the discussion starts, so that you dont dig your heels in and get in the way of a path forward.
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